Tumor suppression in mice lacking GABARAP, an Atg8/LC3 family member implicated in autophagy, is associated with alterations in cytokine secretion and cell death.

GABARAP belongs to an evolutionary highly conserved gene family that has a fundamental role in autophagy. There is ample evidence for a crosstalk between autophagy and apoptosis as well as the immune response. However, the molecular details for these interactions are not fully characterized. Here, we report that the ablation of murine GABARAP, a member of the Atg8/LC3 family that is central to autophagosome formation, suppresses the incidence of tumor formation mediated by the carcinogen DMBA and results in an enhancement of the immune response through increased secretion of IL-1ß, IL-6, IL-2 and IFN-γ from stimulated macrophages and lymphocytes. In contrast, TGF-ß1 was significantly reduced in the serum of these knockout mice. Further, DMBA treatment of these GABARAP knockout mice reduced the cellularity of the spleen and the growth of mammary glands through the induction of apoptosis. Gene expression profiling of mammary glands revealed significantly elevated levels of Xaf1, an apoptotic inducer and tumor-suppressor gene, in knockout mice. Furthermore, DMBA treatment triggered the upregulation of pro-apoptotic (Bid, Apaf1, Bax), cell death (Tnfrsf10b, Ripk1) and cell cycle inhibitor (Cdkn1a, Cdkn2c) genes in the mammary glands. Finally, tumor growth of B16 melanoma cells after subcutaneous inoculation was inhibited in GABARAP-deficient mice. Together, these data provide strong evidence for the involvement of GABARAP in tumorigenesis in vivo by delaying cell death and its associated immune-related response.

Glycinergic input of small-field amacrine cells in the retinas of wildtype and glycine receptor deficient mice.

Amacrine cells are known to express strychnine-sensitive glycine receptors (GlyRs), however, it is not known which of the four GlyRalpha subunits (alpha1-4) are expressed in this diverse group of cells. Herein, we studied the presence of glycine activated currents and spontaneous inhibitory postsynaptic currents (sIPSCs) of amacrine cells in the mouse retina. By recording glycinergic currents in retinal slices of wildtype mice and of mice deficient in GlyRalpha subunits (Glra1spd-ot, Glra2-/-, Glra3-/-), we could classify AII and narrow-field amacrine cells (NF, Types 5, 6, 7) on the basis of their alpha-subunit composition. Glycinergic sIPSCs of AII cells displayed medium fast kinetics (mean decay time constant tau=11+/-2 ms), which were completely absent in the Glra3-/- mouse, indicating that synaptic GlyRs of AII cells mainly contain the alpha3 subunit. Glycinergic sIPSCs of NF cells had slow kinetics (tau=27+/-6.8 ms) that were significantly prolonged in Glra2-/- mice (tau=69+/-16 ms). These data show that morphologically distinct amacrine cells express different sets of GlyRs.

Role of NSF in neurotransmitter release: a peptide microinjection study at the crayfish neuromuscular junction.

Peptides that inhibit the SNAP-stimulated ATPase activity of N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive fusion protein (NSF-2, NSF-3) were injected intra-axonally to study the role of this protein in the release of glutamate at the crayfish neuromuscular junction. Macropatch recording was used to establish the quantal content and to construct synaptic delay histograms. NSF-2 or NSF-3 injection reduced the quantal content, evoked by either direct depolarization of a single release bouton or by axonal action potentials, on average by 66 +/- 12% (mean +/- SD; n = 32), but had no effect on the time course of release. NSF-2 had no effect on the amplitude or shape of the presynaptic action potential nor on the excitatory nerve terminal current. Neither NSF-2 nor NSF-3 affected the shape or amplitude of single quantal currents. Injection of a peptide with the same composition as NSF-2, but with a scrambled amino acid sequence, failed to alter the quantal content. We conclude that, at the crayfish neuromuscular junction, NSF-dependent reactions regulate quantal content without contributing to the presynaptic mechanisms that control the time course of release.

Lessons from the knocked-out glycine transporters.

Glycine has multiple neurotransmitter functions in the central nervous system (CNS). In the spinal cord and brainstem of vertebrates, it serves as a major inhibitory neurotransmitter. In addition, it participates in excitatory neurotransmission by modulating the activity of the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) subtype of glutamate receptors. The extracellular concentrations of glycine are regulated by Na+/Cl(-)-dependent glycine transporters (GlyTs), which are expressed in neurons and adjacent glial cells. Considerable progress has been made recently towards elucidating the in vivo roles of GlyTs in the CNS. The generation and analysis of animals carrying targeted disruptions of GlyT genes (GlyT knockout mice) have allowed investigators to examine the different contributions of individual GlyT subtypes to synaptic transmission. In addition, they have provided animal models for two hereditary human diseases, glycine encephalopathy and hyperekplexia. Selective GlyT inhibitors have been shown to modulate neurotransmission and might constitute promising therapeutic tools for the treatment of psychiatric and neurological disorders such as schizophrenia and pain. Therefore, pharmacological and genetic studies indicate that GlyTs are key regulators of both glycinergic inhibitory and glutamatergic excitatory neurotransmission. This chapter describes our present understanding of the functions of GlyTs and their involvement in the fine-tuning of neuronal communication.

Gephyrin: does splicing affect its function?

Gephyrin is a protein involved in both synaptic anchoring of inhibitory ligand-gated ion channels and molybdenum cofactor synthesis. Substantial progress has been made in understanding its gene and protein structures. Furthermore, numerous binding partners of gephyrin have been identified. The mechanisms by which these interactions occur are unclear at present. Alternative splicing has been proposed to contribute to gephyrin's functional diversity within single cells as well as in different cell types and tissues.

Glycine transporters: essential regulators of synaptic transmission.

Glycine is a major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the mammalian CNS (central nervous system). Glycinergic neurotransmission is terminated by the uptake of glycine into glycinergic nerve terminals and neighbouring glial cells. This uptake process is mediated by specific Na(+)/Cl(-)-dependent GlyTs (glycine transporters), GlyT1 and GlyT2. GlyT1, in addition, is thought to regulate the concentration of glycine at excitatory synapses containing NMDARs (N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors), which require glycine as a co-agonist. We have analysed the physiological roles and regulation of GlyT1 and GlyT2 by generating transporter-deficient mice and searching for interacting proteins. Our genetic results indicate that at glycinergic synapses, the glial transporter GlyT1 catalyses the removal of glycine from the synaptic cleft, whereas GlyT2 is required for the re-uptake of glycine into nerve terminals, thereby allowing for neurotransmitter reloading of synaptic vesicles. Both GlyT1 and GlyT2 are essential for CNS function, as revealed by the lethal phenotypes of the respective knockout mice. Mice expressing only a single GlyT1 allele are phenotypically normal but may have enhanced NMDAR function. GlyT2 is highly enriched at glycinergic nerve terminals, and Ca(2+)-triggered exocytosis and internalization are thought to regulate GlyT2 numbers in the pre-synaptic plasma membrane. We have identified different interacting proteins that may play a role in GlyT2 trafficking and/or pre-synaptic localization.

Affinity labeling of cysteine-mutants evidences contact residues in modeled receptor binding sites.

To investigate the topology of binding sites in two ionotropic receptors, we have initiated a strategy combining affinity labeling with cysteine-scanning mutagenesis. For the GABAA receptor we have used reactive derivatives of non-competitive blockers (NCBs) to explore interacting positions in its channel. The polypeptide positions of the M2 segment of the alpha1 subunit which we mutated into cysteine were selected for their established accessibility, as determined by the substituted-cysteine accessibility method (SCAM). Using the Xenopus oocyte expression system, we show that receptors containing mutations V257C and S272C are inactivated by several reactive NCBs. These position-selective inactivations lead to an analysis of NCB binding in the channel. For the NMDA receptor glycine-binding site, the prototype antagonist L-701,324 was derivatized at different positions with different reactive groups. The receptor positions to mutate into cysteine were selected after a 3-D homology model. The observed receptor inactivations are mutant- and probe-selective, leading to an unambiguous chemical docking of the antagonist pharmacophore and supporting the model. The site-specificity of the inactivating reactions is assessed by protection experiments and by mutant to wild-type (WT) comparisons. The scope and limitations of the method are briefly discussed.

PICK1 is required for the control of synaptic transmission by the metabotropic glutamate receptor 7.

Both postsynaptic density and presynaptic active zone are structural matrix containing scaffolding proteins that are involved in the organization of the synapse. Little is known about the functional role of these proteins in the signaling of presynaptic receptors. Here we show that the interaction of the presynaptic metabotropic glutamate (mGlu) receptor subtype, mGlu7a, with the postsynaptic density-95 disc-large zona occludens 1 (PDZ) domain-containing protein, PICK1, is required for specific inhibition of P/Q-type Ca(2+) channels, in cultured cerebellar granule neurons. Furthermore, we show that activation of the presynaptic mGlu7a receptor inhibits synaptic transmission and this effect also requires the presence of PICK1. These results indicate that the scaffolding protein, PICK1, plays an essential role in the control of synaptic transmission by the mGlu7a receptor complex.

Identification of a gephyrin-binding motif in the GDP/GTP exchange factor collybistin.

The brain-specific GDP/GTP exchange factor collybistin interacts with the receptor-anchoring protein gephyrin and activates the Rho-like GTPase Cdc42, which is known to regulate actin cytoskeleton dynamics. Alternative splicing creates two collybistin variants, I and II. In coexpression experiments, collybistin II has been shown to induce the formation of submembraneous gephyrin aggregates which cluster with hetero-oligomeric glycine receptors (GlyRs). Here we identified residues critical for interaction with gephyrin in the linker region between the SH3 and the DH domains of collybistin. Respective collybistin deletion mutants failed to bind gephyrin upon coexpression in heterologous cells, in GST pull-down assays and in the yeast two-hybrid system. Site-directed mutagenesis revealed polar amino acid residues as essential determinants of gephyrin binding. Furthermore, in vitro gephyrin bound simultaneously to both collybistin and the GlyR beta-subunit binding motif. Our data are consistent with collybistin-gephyrin interactions occuring during inhibitory postsynaptic membrane formation.

Point mutations identify the glutamate binding pocket of the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor as major site of conantokin-G inhibition.

Conantokin-G (Con-G), a gamma-carboxylglutamate (Gla) containing peptide derived from the venom of the marine cone snail Conus geographus, acts as a selective and potent inhibitor of N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors. Here, the effect of Con-G on recombinant NMDA receptors carrying point mutations within the glycine and glutamate binding pockets of the NR1 and NR2B subunits was studied using whole-cell voltage-clamp recording from cRNA injected Xenopus oocytes. At wild-type receptors, glutamate-induced currents were inhibited by Con-G in a dose-dependent manner at concentrations of 0.1-100 microM. Substitution of selected residues within the NR2B subunit reduced the inhibitory potency of Con-G, whereas similar mutations in the NR1 subunit had little effect. These results indicate a selective interaction of Con-G with the glutamate binding pocket of the NMDA receptor. Homology-based molecular modeling of the glutamate binding region based on the known structure of the glutamate binding site of the AMPA receptor protein GluR2 suggests how selected amino acid side chains of NR2B might interact with specific residues of Con-G.

Sferics and headache: a prospective study.

Sferics are low frequency, low intensity electromagnetic pulses radiating from distant meteorological events and other yet unknown sources. It has been hypothesized that sferics are part of the purported sensitivity to weather changes reported by headache sufferers. We tested this proposal. Patients (migraine and/or tension headache) enrolled in a randomized clinical trial gave daily headache data (intensity, frequency, duration of headache) for at least 18 weeks. Concurrently, a sferics measurement station in the vicinity of the patients recorded frequency and intensity of sferics. Usable headache data from 21 patients and the corresponding sferics series were subjected to time series analysis applying ARIMA models and then cross-correlated. We found significant and consistent cross-correlations of moderate size at lag 0 in one patient between ARIMA-filtered headache intensity and frequency (r = 0.18) and amplitude of sferics (r = 0.20). We conclude that in an unselected sample of headache patients some may indeed be susceptible to the low intensity type of electromagnetic radiation exemplified by sferics pulses. This phenomenon warrants further scrutiny.

Ubiquitination precedes internalization and proteolytic cleavage of plasma membrane-bound glycine receptors.

The inhibitory glycine receptor (GlyR) in developing spinal neurones is internalized efficiently upon antagonist inhibition. Here we used surface labeling combined with affinity purification to show that homopentameric alpha1 GlyRs generated in Xenopus oocytes are proteolytically nicked into fragments of 35 and 13 kDa upon prolonged incubation. Nicked GlyRs do not exist at the cell surface, indicating that proteolysis occurs exclusively in the endocytotic pathway. Consistent with this interpretation, elevation of the lysosomal pH, but not the proteasome inhibitor lactacystin, prevents GlyR cleavage. Prior to internalization, alpha1 GlyRs are conjugated extensively with ubiquitin in the plasma membrane. Our results are consistent with ubiquitination regulating the endocytosis and subsequent proteolysis of GlyRs residing in the plasma membrane. Ubiquitin-conjugating enzymes thus may have a crucial role in synaptic plasticity by determining postsynaptic receptor numbers.

Cofilin activation during Ca(2+)-triggered secretion from adrenal chromaffin cells.

Cofilin is one of the major actin depolymerizing proteins in eukaryotic cells and involved in many membrane modulating activities, such as cell growth and motility. Here we examined whether cofilin is activated upon Ca(2+) regulated noradrenalin secretion from bovine adrenal chromaffin cells. We found that triggering exocytosis by nicotine causes a dephosphorylation and thereby activation of cofilin. Furthermore, in permeabilized chromaffin cells the addition of Ca(2+) alone is sufficient to trigger both, regulated exocytosis and cofilin activation. This is consistent with cofilin activation being required for actin reorganization during exocytosis.

Inhibition of neurite extension by overexpression of individual domains of LIM kinase 1.

Lin-11, Isl-1 and Mec-3 (LIM) kinases are serine/threonine kinases that phosphorylate cofilin, an actin depolymerizing protein. LIM kinases have a highly modular structure composed of two N-terminal LIM domains (LIM 1/2), a PSD-95, Dlg and ZO-1 (PDZ) domain and a C-terminal protein kinase domain. Here, we overexpressed individual domains of mouse LIM kinase 1 (LIMK1) in PC12 cells and investigated their effects on neurite outgrowth. Although none of the LIMK1 domains had an effect on spontaneous neurite outgrowth, the N-terminal LIM 1/2 domains strongly inhibited differentiation of PC12 cells after stimulation with both nerve growth factor (NGF) and the Rho-kinase inhibitor Y-27632. In contrast, the overexpressed PDZ domain reduced neurite outgrowth only when differentiation had been induced by Y-27632, but not by NGF. Our data suggest that the different non-catalytic N-terminal domains of LIMK1 contribute to the regulation of neurite extension by using distinct signal transduction pathways.

Subunit-specific modulation of glycine receptors by neurosteroids.

The effects of pregnene and androstane steroids were studied on recombinant human glycine receptors (GlyRs) by whole-cell voltage-clamp electrophysiology. The 3beta-sulphates of pregnenolone (PREGS) and dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEAS) inhibited GlyR currents with K(I) values of 2-20 microM for different (alpha(1), alpha(2), alpha(4) and beta) GlyR subunits. PREGS resulted in a parallel shift of the response curve of glycine for alpha(1) GlyRs. The inhibitory potencies of DHEAS relative to PREGS were decreased in transition from embryonic alpha(2) towards adult alpha(1)beta GlyRs. A decreased potency of DHEAS for alpha(4) versus alpha(2) GlyRs represents the first pharmacological difference reported between these subunits. A negative charge at C3 is required for GlyR antagonism but androsterone sulphate epimers at C3 inhibited without stereoselectivity. Some point mutations of alpha(1) GlyRs with characteristic functional consequences did not significantly affect the inhibitory potency of PREGS. Progesterone selectively inhibited alpha(2) GlyRs, while PREG and its acetic ester potentiated alpha(1) GlyRs. Coexpression of the alpha subunits with the beta subunit eliminated the enhancing effects of PREG and attenuated the inhibitory potencies of the neurosteroids. Based on these data we propose that neurosteroids might modulate perinatal GlyR activity and thereby influence neuronal development.

Mapping of calmodulin and Gbetagamma binding domains within the C-terminal region of the metabotropic glutamate receptor 7A.

Ca(2+)/calmodulin (Ca(2+)/CaM) and the betagamma subunits of heterotrimeric G-proteins (Gbetagamma) have recently been shown to interact in a mutually exclusive fashion with the intracellular C terminus of the presynaptic metabotropic glutamate receptor 7 (mGluR 7). Here, we further characterized the core CaM and Gbetagamma binding sequences. In contrast to a previous report, we find that the CaM binding motif localized in the N-terminal region of the cytoplasmic tail domain of mGluR 7 is conserved in the related group III mGluRs 4A and 8 and allows these receptors to also bind Ca(2+)/CaM. Mutational analysis of the Ca(2+)/CaM binding motif is consistent with group III receptors containing a conventional CaM binding site formed by an amphipathic alpha-helix. Substitutions adjacent to the core CaM target sequence selectively prevent Gbetagamma binding, suggesting that the CaM-dependent regulation of signal transduction involves determinants that overlap with but are different from those mediating Gbetagamma recruitment. In addition, we present evidence that Gbetagamma uses distinct nonoverlapping interfaces for interaction with the mGluR 7 C-terminal tail and the effector enzyme adenylyl cyclase II, respectively. Although Gbetagamma-mediated signaling is abolished in receptors lacking the core CaM binding sequence, alpha subunit activation, as assayed by agonist-dependent GTPgammaS binding, was not affected. This suggests that Ca(2+)/CaM may alter the mode of group III mGluR signaling from mono- (alpha) to bidirectional (alpha and betagamma) activation of downstream effector cascades.

Gephyrin-independent clustering of postsynaptic GABA(A) receptor subtypes.

Gephyrin has been shown to be essential for the synaptic localization of the inhibitory glycine receptor and major GABA(A) receptor (GABA(A)R) subtypes. However, in retina certain GABA(A)R subunits are found at synaptic sites in the absence of gephyrin. Here, we quantitatively analyzed GABA(A)R alpha1, alpha2, alpha3, alpha5, beta2/3, and gamma2 subunit immunoreactivities in spinal cord sections derived from wild-type and gephyrin-deficient (geph -/-) mice. The punctate staining of GABA(A)R alpha1 and alpha5 subunits was unaltered in geph -/- mice, whereas the numbers of alpha2-, alpha3-, beta2/3-, and gamma2-subunit-immunoreactive synaptic sites were significantly or even strikingly reduced in the mutant animals. Immunostaining with an antibody specific for the vesicular inhibitory amino acid transporter revealed that the number of inhibitory presynaptic terminals is unaltered upon gephyrin deficiency. These data show that in addition to gephyrin other clustering proteins must exist that mediate the synaptic localization of selected GABA(A)R subtypes.

X-ray crystal structure of the trimeric N-terminal domain of gephyrin.

Gephyrin is a ubiquitously expressed protein that, in the central nervous system, forms a submembraneous scaffold for anchoring inhibitory neurotransmitter receptors in the postsynaptic membrane. The N- and C-terminal domains of gephyrin are homologous to the Escherichia coli enzymes MogA and MoeA, respectively, both of which are involved in molybdenum cofactor biosynthesis. This enzymatic pathway is highly conserved from bacteria to mammals, as underlined by the ability of gephyrin to rescue molybdenum cofactor deficiencies in different organisms. Here we report the x-ray crystal structure of the N-terminal domain (amino acids 2-188) of rat gephyrin at 1.9-A resolution. Gephyrin-(2-188) forms trimers in solution, and a sequence motif thought to be involved in molybdopterin binding is highly conserved between gephyrin and the E. coli protein. The atomic structure of gephyrin-(2-188) resembles MogA, albeit with two major differences. The path of the C-terminal ends of gephyrin-(2-188) indicates that the central and C-terminal domains, absent in this structure, should follow a similar 3-fold arrangement as the N-terminal region. In addition, a central beta-hairpin loop found in MogA is lacking in gephyrin-(2-188). Despite these differences, both structures show a high degree of surface charge conservation, which is consistent with their common catalytic function.

PKC phosphorylation of a conserved serine residue in the C-terminus of group III metabotropic glutamate receptors inhibits calmodulin binding.

Group III metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs) serve as presynaptic receptors that mediate feedback inhibition of glutamate release via a Ca(2+)/calmodulin (CaM)-dependent mechanism. In vitro phosphorylation of mGluR7A by protein kinase C (PKC) prevents its interaction with Ca(2+)/CaM. In addition, activation of PKC leads to an inhibition of mGluR signaling. Here, we demonstrate that disrupting CaM binding to mGluR7A by PKC in vitro is due to phosphorylation of a highly conserved serine residue, S862. We propose charge neutralization of the CaM binding consensus sequence resulting from phosphorylation to constitute a general mechanism for the regulation of presynaptic mGluR signaling.

SNARE complex oligomerization by synaphin/complexin is essential for synaptic vesicle exocytosis.

Synaphin/complexin is a cytosolic protein that preferentially binds to syntaxin within the SNARE complex. We find that synaphin promotes SNAREs to form precomplexes that oligomerize into higher order structures. A peptide from the central, syntaxin binding domain of synaphin competitively inhibits these two proteins from interacting and prevents SNARE complexes from oligomerizing. Injection of this peptide into squid giant presynaptic terminals inhibited neurotransmitter release at a late prefusion step of synaptic vesicle exocytosis. We propose that oligomerization of SNARE complexes into a higher order structure creates a SNARE scaffold for efficient, regulated fusion of synaptic vesicles.